Developments In Equal Pay Litigation Book - 2025 Update

Table of Contents	4
Equal Pay Legislation	7
A. The Federal Equal Pay Act and Title VII	7
B. State Equal Pay Legislation	7
C. Pay Transparency and Other State and Local Initiatives	8
Recent Case Law Developments	12
A. Proving The Prima Facie Case	12
1. Establishing A Wage Disparity	13
2. Showing That Work Is “Equal” Or “Substantially Similar”	24
B. Significant Class And Collective Action Decisions	37
1. Recent Cases Involving Collective Action Certification	37
2. Recent Cases Involving Class Action Certification	44
C. Disproving Discrimination: Employers’ Affirmative Defenses	49
1. Proving A Factor Other Than Sex	49
2. Additional State Law Requirements to Establish the Factor Other Than Sex Defense	55
3. Challenging The Factor Other Than Sex: Salary History and Beyond	59
4. Other Affirmative Defenses	65
5. Pretext	69
D. Other Important Substantive Decisions Impacting Equal Pay Litigation	71
1. Retaliation Claims	71
2. Proving An “Establishment”	76
3. Identifying The “Employer” Under The EPA	78
4. Statute Of Limitations and Willfulness Issues	81
5. Maintaining Privilege of Internal Investigations and Proactive Pay Studies	82
Developments In EEOC Enforcement Of Equal Pay Act Claims	87
A. Recent Examples of EEOC Enforcement Activity	87
B. EEOC Litigation of Title VII Equal Pay Claims	90

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